How Do Animals Know To Fly South

Power of many animals to discover their manner accurately without maps or instruments

Manx shearwaters can fly straight home when released, navigating thousands of miles over state or sea.

Brute navigation is the ability of many animals to find their fashion accurately without maps or instruments. Birds such every bit the Arctic tern, insects such as the monarch butterfly and fish such as the salmon regularly drift thousands of miles to and from their breeding grounds,^[one] and many other species navigate effectively over shorter distances.

Dead reckoning, navigating from a known position using only information well-nigh one's own speed and management, was suggested by Charles Darwin in 1873 every bit a possible mechanism. In the 20th century, Karl von Frisch showed that dear bees can navigate past the sun, by the polarization blueprint of the blueish sky, and by the earth's magnetic field; of these, they rely on the lord's day when possible. William Tinsley Keeton showed that homing pigeons could similarly make use of a range of navigational cues, including the sun, earth's magnetic field, olfaction and vision. Ronald Lockley demonstrated that a small seabird, the Manx shearwater, could orient itself and fly habitation at full speed, when released far from dwelling, provided either the lord's day or the stars were visible.

Several species of brute can integrate cues of different types to orient themselves and navigate finer. Insects and birds are able to combine learned landmarks with sensed management (from the earth'south magnetic field or from the sky) to place where they are and and so to navigate. Internal 'maps' are ofttimes formed using vision, but other senses including olfaction and echolocation may likewise be used.

The power of wild animals to navigate may be adversely afflicted by products of human action. For example, there is show that pesticides may interfere with bee navigation, and that lights may damage turtle navigation.

Early enquiry [edit]

In 1873, Charles Darwin wrote a letter to Nature magazine, arguing that animals including homo have the ability to navigate by dead reckoning, even if a magnetic 'compass' sense and the ability to navigate by the stars is present:^[2]

With regard to the question of the means by which animals find their way dwelling house from a long distance, a hitting business relationship, in relation to man, volition be plant in the English translation of the Expedition to North Siberia, by Von Wrangell.^[a] He there describes the wonderful style in which the natives kept a true course towards a particular spot, whilst passing for a long distance through hummocky ice, with incessant changes of management, and with no guide in the heavens or on the frozen sea. He states (but I quote merely from memory of many years continuing) that he, an experienced surveyor, and using a compass, failed to do that which these savages hands effected. Yet no ane volition suppose that they possessed any special sense which is quite absent-minded in united states of america. We must bear in mind that neither a compass, nor the north star, nor whatsoever other such sign, suffices to guide a man to a particular spot through an intricate land, or through hummocky water ice, when many deviations from a straight course are inevitable, unless the deviations are allowed for, or a sort of "dead reckoning" is kept. All men are able to practice this in a greater or less degree, and the natives of Siberia obviously to a wonderful extent, though probably in an unconscious mode. This is effected chiefly, no doubt, by eyesight, but partly, perhaps, by the sense of muscular movement, in the same manner equally a man with his optics blinded can proceed (and some men much amend than others) for a short distance in a nearly straight line, or plough at right angles, or dorsum again. The manner in which the sense of management is sometimes all of a sudden disarranged in very old and feeble persons, and the feeling of strong distress which, as I know, has been experienced by persons when they have suddenly establish out that they have been proceeding in a wholly unexpected and incorrect management, leads to the suspicion that some role of the brain is specialised for the function of management.

Later in 1873, Joseph John Murphy^[b] replied to Darwin, writing back to Nature with a description of how he, Potato, believed animals carried out expressionless reckoning, by what is now called inertial navigation:^[three]

If a brawl is freely suspended from the roof of a railway carriage it volition receive a shock sufficient to move it, when the carriage is prepare in motion: and the magnitude and direction of the shock … will depend on the magnitude and direction of the force with which the carriage begins to movement … [and then] … every change in … the motion of the wagon … volition give a stupor of corresponding magnitude and direction to the brawl. Now, information technology is feasibly quite possible, though such delicacy of mechanism is not to be hoped for, that a auto should be synthetic … for registering the magnitude and management of all these shocks, with the time at which each occurred … from these data the position of the carriage … might be calculated at any moment.

Karl von Frisch (1886–1982) studied the European honey bee, demonstrating that bees can recognize a desired compass management in three different ways: by the sun, by the polarization pattern of the blue sky, and by the earth's magnetic field. He showed that the sun is the preferred or main compass; the other mechanisms are used nether cloudy skies or inside a dark beehive.^[4]

William Tinsley Keeton (1933–1980) studied homing pigeons, showing that they were able to navigate using the earth's magnetic field, the sun, too as both olfactory and visual cues.^[five]

Donald Griffin (1915–2003) studied echolocation in bats, demonstrating that it was possible and that bats used this mechanism to detect and track prey, and to "see" and thus navigate through the world around them.^[vi]

Ronald Lockley (1903–2000), amongst many studies of birds in over l books, pioneered the science of bird migration. He made a twelve-year study of shearwaters such as the Manx shearwater, living on the remote island of Skokholm.^[seven] These pocket-size seabirds make one of the longest migrations of whatsoever bird—x,000 kilometres—merely render to the exact nesting couch on Skokholm year subsequently year. This behaviour led to the question of how they navigated.^[8]

Mechanisms [edit]

Lockley began his book Fauna Navigation with the words:^[nine]

How practice animals detect their way over apparently trackless country, through pathless forests, across empty deserts, over and under characterless seas? ... They do and then, of course, without whatsoever visible compass, sextant, chronometer or nautical chart...

Many mechanisms have been proposed for animal navigation: there is evidence for a number of them. Investigators have often been forced to discard the simplest hypotheses - for example, some animals tin navigate on a dark and cloudy night, when neither landmarks nor celestial cues similar sun, moon, or stars are visible. The major mechanisms known or hypothesized are described in turn below.

Remembered landmarks [edit]

Animals including mammals, birds and insects such as bees and wasps (Ammophila and Sphex),^[10] are capable of learning landmarks in their surroundings, and of using these in navigation.^[11]

Orientation past the lord's day [edit]

Some animals can navigate using celestial cues such as the position of the sun. Since the sun moves in the heaven, navigation by this means likewise requires an internal clock. Many animals depend on such a clock to maintain their circadian rhythm.^[12] Animals that use sun compass orientation are fish, birds, sea-turtles, butterflies, bees, sandhoppers, reptiles, and ants.^[13]

When sandhoppers (such every bit Talitrus saltator) are taken upward a beach, they hands find their way back down to the sea. It has been shown that this is non simply by moving downhill or towards the sight or audio of the sea. A group of sandhoppers were acclimatised to a 24-hour interval/dark cycle under artificial lighting, whose timing was gradually changed until it was 12 hours out of phase with the natural cycle. Then, the sandhoppers were placed on the beach in natural sunlight. They moved away from the body of water, up the beach. The experiment implied that the sandhoppers use the sun and their internal clock to decide their heading, and that they had learnt the actual direction down to the sea on their particular beach.^[14]

Experiments with Manx shearwaters showed that when released "nether a clear heaven" far from their nests, the seabirds start oriented themselves and then flew off in the correct direction. Only if the sky was overcast at the time of release, the shearwaters flew around in circles.^[8]

Monarch butterflies use the dominicus as a compass to guide their southwesterly fall migration from Canada to Mexico.^[thirteen]

Orientation by the nighttime sky [edit]

In a pioneering experiment, Lockley showed that warblers placed in a planetarium showing the dark sky oriented themselves towards the south; when the planetarium sky was then very slowly rotated, the birds maintained their orientation with respect to the displayed stars. Lockley observes that to navigate by the stars, birds would need both a "sextant and chronometer": a born ability to read patterns of stars and to navigate by them, which also requires an accurate time-of-day clock.^[fifteen]

In 2003, the African dung beetle Scarabaeus zambesianus was shown to navigate using polarization patterns in moonlight, making information technology the first brute known to use polarized moonlight for orientation.^{[sixteen] [17] [18] [c]} In 2013, information technology was shown that dung beetles tin can navigate when only the Milky Mode or clusters of vivid stars are visible,^[xx] making dung beetles the just insects known to orient themselves by the galaxy.^[21]

Orientation by polarised low-cal [edit]

Some animals, notably insects such as the honey bee, are sensitive to the polarisation of lite. Honey bees can use polarized calorie-free on overcast days to estimate the position of the dominicus in the sky, relative to the compass direction they intend to travel. Karl von Frisch's work established that bees can accurately place the management and range from the hive to a food source (typically a patch of nectar-bearing flowers). A worker bee returns to the hive and signals to other workers the range and direction relative to the sun of the food source past means of a waggle dance. The observing bees are and then able to locate the food by flying the implied distance in the given management,^[4] though other biologists accept questioned whether they necessarily practise so, or are only stimulated to go and search for food.^[22] Withal, bees are certainly able to call back the location of nutrient, and to navigate back to it accurately, whether the weather is sunny (in which case navigation may be by the dominicus or remembered visual landmarks) or largely clouded (when polarised light may be used).^[4]

Magnetoreception [edit]

The homing pigeon can quickly return to its home, using cues such equally the earth's magnetic field to orient itself.

Some animals, including mammals such as blind mole rats (Spalax)^[23] and birds such as pigeons, are sensitive to the world's magnetic field.^[24]

Homing pigeons utilise magnetic field data with other navigational cues.^[25] Pioneering researcher William Keeton showed that time-shifted homing pigeons could not orient themselves correctly on a articulate sunny day, but could do then on an overcast day, suggesting that the birds prefer to rely on the management of the sun, simply switch to using a magnetic field cue when the sun is not visible. This was confirmed by experiments with magnets: the pigeons could non orient correctly on an overcast 24-hour interval when the magnetic field was disrupted.^[26]

Olfaction [edit]

Returning salmon may use olfaction to identify the river in which they developed.

Olfactory navigation has been suggested as a possible mechanism in pigeons. Papi's 'mosaic' model argues that pigeons build and recollect a mental map of the odours in their area, recognizing where they are by the local odour.^[27] Wallraff's 'gradient' model argues that there is a steady, large-calibration slope of smell which remains stable for long periods. If there were two or more such gradients in different directions, pigeons could locate themselves in two dimensions by the intensities of the odours. Notwithstanding it is not clear that such stable gradients exist.^[28] Papi did observe evidence that anosmic pigeons (unable to notice odours) were much less able to orient and navigate than normal pigeons, so olfaction does seem to be important in pigeon navigation. However, information technology is not clear how olfactory cues are used.^[29]

Olfactory cues may be important in salmon, which are known to return to the verbal river where they hatched. Lockley reports experimental evidence that fish such as minnows can accurately tell the difference betwixt the waters of different rivers.^[xxx] Salmon may employ their magnetic sense to navigate to within achieve of their river, and then use olfaction to identify the river at close range.^[31]

Gravity receptors [edit]

GPS tracing studies indicate that gravity anomalies could play a part in homing dove navigation.^{[32] [33]}

Other senses [edit]

Biologists have considered other senses that may contribute to animal navigation. Many marine animals such as seals are capable of hydrodynamic reception, enabling them to track and grab prey such as fish by sensing the disturbances their passage leaves behind in the water.^[34] Marine mammals such equally dolphins,^[35] and many species of bat,^[6] are capable of echolocation, which they use both for detecting casualty and for orientation by sensing their surround.

Way-marking [edit]

The wood mouse is the showtime non-human being animal to be observed, both in the wild and under laboratory conditions, using movable landmarks to navigate. While foraging, they option up and distribute visually conspicuous objects, such as leaves and twigs, which they then use as landmarks during exploration, moving the markers when the area has been explored.^[36]

Path integration [edit]

Path integration sums the vectors of distance and management travelled from a start betoken to estimate current position, then the path dorsum to the start.

Dead reckoning, in animals commonly known as path integration, ways the putting together of cues from unlike sensory sources within the torso, without reference to visual or other external landmarks, to estimate position relative to a known starting bespeak continuously while travelling on a path that is not necessarily directly. Seen as a problem in geometry, the task is to compute the vector to a starting point by adding the vectors for each leg of the journey from that point.^[37]

Since Darwin's On the Origins of Certain Instincts ^[2] (quoted in a higher place) in 1873, path integration has been shown to be important to navigation in animals including ants, rodents and birds.^{[38] [39]} When vision (and hence the utilize of remembered landmarks) is non available, such as when animals are navigating on a cloudy night, in the open bounding main, or in relatively characterless areas such as sandy deserts, path integration must rely on idiothetic cues from inside the body.^{[40] [41]}

Studies by Wehner in the Sahara desert ant (Cataglyphis bicolor) demonstrate effective path integration to determine directional heading (by polarized light or sun position) and to compute distance (by monitoring leg movement or optical flow).^[42]

Path integration in mammals makes use of the vestibular organs, which detect accelerations in the iii dimensions, together with motor efference, where the motor system tells the rest of the brain which movements were commanded,^[23] and optic menstruation, where the visual system signals how fast the visual globe moves by the eyes.^[43] Information from other senses such as echolocation and magnetoreception may also be integrated in certain animals. The hippocampus is the function of the brain that integrates linear and angular motion to encode a mammal's relative position in space.^[44]

David Redish states that "The advisedly controlled experiments of Mittelstaedt and Mittelstaedt (1980) and Etienne (1987) have demonstrated conclusively that [path integration in mammals] is a consequence of integrating internal cues from vestibular signals and motor efferent copy".^[45]

Effects of human action [edit]

Neonicotinoid pesticides may impair the ability of bees to navigate. Bees exposed to low levels of thiamethoxam were less likely to return to their colony, to an extent sufficient to compromise a colony'southward survival.^[46]

Light pollution attracts and disorients photophilic animals, those that follow light. For instance, hatchling ocean turtles follow brilliant lite, specially blueish calorie-free, altering their navigation. Disrupted navigation in moths can easily be observed effectually brilliant lamps on summer nights. Insects gather around these lamps at high densities instead of navigating naturally.^[47]

Run into besides [edit]

• Animal migration
• Salmon run

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The book was A Journey on the Northern Coast of Siberia and the Icy Sea (2 vols.), London, 1841. Wrangel is variously spelt Vrangel or Wrangell.
2. ^ JJ Murphy (d 1894), of County Antrim, was treasurer and then president of the Belfast Literary Order. He attempted to harmonise evolution and faith, publishing a book The Scientific Bases of Religion in 1872.
3. ^ A diagram of the experimental appliance is available from JEB.^[xix]

References [edit]

1. ^ Dingle, Hugh; Drake, Five. Alistair (2007). "What is migration?". BioScience. 57 (2): 113–121. doi:10.1641/B570206.
2. ^ ^{a b} Darwin, Charles (24 Apr 1873). "Origin of Certain Instincts". Nature. vii (179): 417–418. Bibcode:1873Natur...7..417D. doi:10.1038/007417a0.
3. ^ Murphy, J.J. (1873). "Instinct: a Mechanical Illustration". Nature. 7 (182): 483. Bibcode:1873Natur...7..483M. doi:x.1038/007483b0. S2CID 22346811.
4. ^ ^{a b c} von Frisch 1953, pp. 93–96.
5. ^ Keeton, William (1974) The orientational and navigational basis of homing in birds. pages 47–132 in Advances in the Study of Beliefs, Vol. v. Bookish Press.
6. ^ ^{a b} Yoon, Ballad Kaesuk. Donald R. Griffin, 88, Dies; Argued Animals Can Retrieve, The New York Times, 14 November 2003.
7. ^ Lockley 1942.
8. ^ ^{a b} Lockley 1967, pp. 114–117.
9. ^ Lockley 1967, p. 9.
10. ^ Tinbergen 1984, pp. 58–79.
11. ^ Collett, Thomas South; Graham, Paul (2004). "Animate being Navigation: Path Integration, Visual Landmarks and Cerebral Maps". Current Biology. fourteen (12): R475–R477. doi:ten.1016/j.cub.2004.06.013. PMID 15203020. S2CID 17881211.
12. ^ Dunlap, Jay C.; Loros, Jennifer; DeCoursey, Patricia J. (2003). Chronobiology: Biological Timekeeping. Sinauer Associates. ISBN978-0878931491.
13. ^ ^{a b} Alcock, John (2009). Brute Beliefs: An Evolutionary Approach. Sinauer Associates. pp. 140–143. ISBN978-0-87893-225-2.
14. ^ Lockley 1967, p. 74.
15. ^ Lockley 1967, p. 136.
16. ^ Dacke, 1000.; Nilsson, D. East.; Scholtz, C. H.; Byrne, Grand.; Warrant, E. J. (2003). "Creature behaviour: Insect orientation to polarized moonlight". Nature. 424 (6944): 33. Bibcode:2003Natur.424...33D. doi:10.1038/424033a. PMID 12840748. S2CID 52859195.
17. ^ Milius, Susan (2003). "Moonlighting: Beetles navigate by lunar polarity". Science News. 164 (1): 4–5. doi:10.2307/3981988. JSTOR 3981988.
18. ^ Roach, John (2003). "Dung Beetles Navigate by the Moon, Study Says", National Geographic News. Retrieved on 2007-08-02.
19. ^ Dacke, Grand.; Nordström, P.; Scholtz, C. H. (May 2003). "Twilight orientation to polarised light in the crepuscular dung protrude Scarabaeus zambesianus". Journal of Experimental Biology. 206 (nine): 1535–1543. doi:10.1242/jeb.00289. PMID 12654892.
20. ^ Dacke, Marie; Baird, Emily; Byrne, Marcus; Scholtz, Clarke H.; Warrant, Eric J. (2013). "Dung Beetles Use the Milky way for Orientation". Current Biological science. 23 (4): 298–300. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.12.034. PMID 23352694.
21. ^ Wits Academy (24 January 2013). "Dung Beetles Follow the Milky Fashion: Insects Institute to Apply Stars for Orientation". ScienceDaily . Retrieved 25 January 2013.
22. ^ Grüter, C.; Balbuena, M.; Farina, W. (2008). "Informational conflicts created by the waggle dance". Proceedings of the Majestic Society B. 275 (1640): 1321–1327. doi:x.1098/rspb.2008.0186. PMC2602683. PMID 18331980.
23. ^ ^{a b} Kimchi, Tali; Etienne, Ariane Due south.; Terkel, Joseph (2004). A subterranean mammal uses the magnetic compass for path integration. PNAS, 27 Jan, vol. 101, no. four, 1105–1109.
24. ^ Thou. Lindauer and H. Martin, in S.R. Galler et al. Animal Orientation and Navigation 559/ane, 1972.
25. ^ Walcott, C. (1996). "Pigeon homing: Observations, experiments and confusions". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 199 (1): 21–27. doi:10.1242/jeb.199.1.21. PMID 9317262.
26. ^ Keeton, W. T. (1971). "Magnets interfere with dove homing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.s.a. of America. 68 (1): 102–half dozen. Bibcode:1971PNAS...68..102K. doi:10.1073/pnas.68.1.102. PMC391171. PMID 5276278.
27. ^ Ioalè, P.; Nozzolini, M.; Papi, F. (1990). "Homing pigeons exercise extract directional information from olfactory stimuli". Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 26 (5): 301–305. doi:x.1007/bf00171094. S2CID 26072452.
28. ^ Wallraff, H.One thousand. (1974). Das Navigationssystem der Vögel. Ein theoretischer Beitrag zur Analyse ungeklärter Orientierungsleistungen. Schriftenreihe 'Kybernetik'. München, Wien: R. Oldenbourg Verlag.
29. ^ Wiltschko, W.; Wiltschko, R. (1996). "Magnetic Orientation in Birds". Journal of Experimental Biology. 199 (Pt 1): 29–38. doi:10.1242/jeb.199.1.29. PMID 9317275.
30. ^ Lockley 1967, p. 180.
31. ^ Lohmann, Thou. J.; Lohmann, C. Chiliad. F.; Endres, C. S. (2008). The sensory ecology of sea navigation J Exp Biol, 211: 1719–1728.
32. ^ Nicole Blaser; Sergei I. Guskov; Virginia Meskenaite; Valerii A. Kanevskyi; Hans-Peter Lipp (23 October 2013). "Contradistinct Orientation and Flight Paths of Pigeons Reared on Gravity Anomalies: A GPS Tracking Study". PLOS I. 8 (10): e77102. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...877102B. doi:x.1371/journal.pone.0077102. PMC3806762. PMID 24194860.
33. ^ Nicole Blaser; Sergei I. Guskov; Vladimir A. Entin; David P. Wolfer; Valeryi A. Kanevskyi; Hans-Peter Lipp (2014). "Gravity anomalies without geomagnetic disturbances interfere with pigeon homing – a GPS tracking report". Journal of Experimental Biological science. 217 (22): 4057–4067. doi:10.1242/jeb.108670. PMID 25392461.
34. ^ Schulte-Pelkum, N.; Wieskotten, Southward.; Hanke, Due west.; Dehnhardt, G.; Mauck, B. (2007). "Tracking of biogenic hydrodynamic trails in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina)". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (5): 781–7. doi:10.1242/jeb.02708. PMID 17297138.
35. ^ Schevill, West. E.; McBride, A. F. (1956). "Prove for echolocation past cetaceans". Abyssal Enquiry. 3 (2): 153–154. Bibcode:1956DSR.....3..153S. doi:10.1016/0146-6313(56)90096-10.
36. ^ Stopka, Pavel; Macdonald, David W. (2003). "Way-marking behaviour: an assistance to spatial navigation in the forest mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus)". BMC Environmental. iii (1): iii. doi:10.1186/1472-6785-iii-3. PMC154096. PMID 12697070.
37. ^ Brood, Michael D (2001). "Path Integration". Animate being Behavior Online. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
38. ^ Gallistel. The System of Learning. 1990.
39. ^ Whishaw, I.Q.; Hines, D.J.; Wallace, D.Thou. (2001). "Dead reckoning (path integration) requires the hippocampal germination: evidence from spontaneous exploration and spatial learning tasks in calorie-free (allothetic) and dark (idiothetic) tests" (PDF). Behavioural Encephalon Enquiry. 127 (ane–two): 49–69. doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(01)00359-10. PMID 11718884. S2CID 7897256.
40. ^ Mittelstaedt, H.; Mittelstaedt, M.-L. (1973). "Mechanismen der orientierung ohne richtende aussenreize". Forschr. Zool. 21: 46–58.
41. ^ Mittelstaedt, M.-L.; Mittelstaedt, H. (1980). "Homing by path integration in a mammal". Naturwissenschaften. 67 (11): 566–567. Bibcode:1980NW.....67..566M. doi:ten.1007/bf00450672. S2CID 37845357.
42. ^ Wehner R (2003). "Desert emmet navigation: how miniature brains solve circuitous tasks" (PDF). Journal of Comparative Physiology. 189 (8): 579–588. doi:ten.1007/s00359-003-0431-ane. PMID 12879352. S2CID 4571290.
43. ^ Gibson, J.J. (1950). The Perception of the Visual World. Houghton Mifflin.
44. ^ McNaughton, BL; Battaglia FP; Jensen O; Moser EI; Moser MB (Baronial 2006). "Path integration and the neural basis of the 'cognitive map'". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 7 (8): 663–678. doi:10.1038/nrn1932. PMID 16858394. S2CID 16928213.
45. ^ Redish 1999, p. 67.
46. ^ Black, Richard (29 March 2012). "BBC News: Science & Environs". Pesticides hitting queen bee numbers. BBC. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
47. ^ Witherington, Blair E. in Clemmons, Janine Rhea, and Buchholz, Richard (editors) (1997). Behavioral Approaches to Conservation in the Wild. Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 301–328. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)

Sources [edit]

• Lockley, Ronald K. (1967). Animal Navigation. Pan Books.
• Lockley, Ronald M. (1942). Shearwaters. J. M. Paring.
• Redish, A. David (1999). Across the Cerebral Map (PDF). MIT Press.
• Tinbergen, Nico (1984). Curious Naturalists (Revised ed.). Academy of Massachusetts Press.
• von Frisch, Karl (1953). The Dancing Bees. Harcourt, Brace & World.

Further reading [edit]

• Gauthreaux, Sidney A. (1980). Animal Migration, Orientation, and Navigation. Academic Press.
• Keeton, William (1972) Furnishings of magnets on pigeon homing. pages 579–594 in Animal Orientation and Navigation. NASA SP-262.
• Keeton, William (1977) Magnetic Reception (biology). In Encyclopedia of Science and Applied science, 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill.
• Keeton, William (1979) Pigeon Navigation. pages 5–20 in Neural Mechanisms of Behavior in the Pigeon. (A. M. Granda and J. H. Maxwell, Eds.) Plenum Publishing.

External links [edit]

• How Stuff Works: Brute Navigation
• Oldenburg University: Brute Navigation
• National Geographic: Animate being Navigation (resources for teachers)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_navigation

Posted by: clelandithey1963.blogspot.com

Share this post